hardware-init-review/hardware_init_review.tex

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    This is Edition 0.0. \\

    Copyright (C) 2024 Adrien 'neox' Bourmault
    \href{mailto:neox@gnu.org}{<neox@gnu.org>} \\

    Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
    under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3
    or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
    with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
    A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU
    Free Documentation License".

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\chapter*{Abstract}

\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Abstract}

    The global trend is towards the scarcity of free software-compatible
    hardware, and soon there will be no computer that will work without
    software domination by big companies, especially involving firmware like
    BIOSes. \\

    A Basic Input Output System (BIOS) was originally a set of low-level
    functions contained in the read-only memory of a computer's mainboard,
    enabling it to perform basic operations when powered up. However, the
    definition of a BIOS has evolved to include what used to be known as Power
    On Self Test (POST) for the presence of peripherals, allocating resources
    for them to avoid conflicts, and then handing over to an operating system
    boot loader. Nowadays, the bulk of the BIOS work is the initialization
    and training of RAM. This means, for example, initializing the memory
    controller and optimizing timing and read/write voltage for optimal
    performance, making the code complex, as its role is to optimize several
    parallel buses operating at high speeds and shared by many CPU cores,
    and make them act as a homogeneous whole. \\

    This document is the product of a project hosted by the \textit{LIP6
    laboratory} and supported by the \textit{GNU Boot Project} and the
    \textit{Free Software Foundation}. It delves into the importance
    of firmware in the hardware initialization of modern computers and
    explores various aspects of firmware, such as Intel Management Engine
    (ME), AMD Platform Security Processor (PSP), Advanced Configuration and
    Power Interface (ACPI), and System Management Mode (SMM). Additionally,
    it provides an in-depth look at memory initialization and training
    algorithms, highlighting their critical role in system stability and
    performance. Examples of the implementation in the ASUS KGPE-D16 mainboard
    are presented, describing its hardware characteristics, topology, and the
    crucial role of firmware in its operation after the mainboard architecture
    is examined.  Practical examples illustrate the impact of firmware on
    hardware initialization, memory optimization, resource allocation,
    power management, and security. Specific algorithms used for memory
    training and their outcomes are analyzed to demonstrate the complexity
    and importance of firmware in achieving optimal system performance.
    Furthermore, this document explores the relationship between firmware
    and hardware virtualization. Security considerations and future trends
    in firmware development are also addressed, emphasizing the need for
    continued research and advocacy for free software-compatible hardware.

\chapter{Introduction to firmware and BIOS evolution}

    \section{Historical context of BIOS}

        \subsection{Definition and origin}

        The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is firmware, which is a type of
        software that is embedded into hardware devices to control their basic
        functions, acting as a bridge between hardware and other software,
        ensuring that the hardware operates correctly. Unlike regular
        software, firmware is usually stored in a non-volatile memory like
        ROM or flash memory. The term "firmware" comes from its role: it is
        "firm" because it's more permanent than regular software (which can
        be easily changed) but not as rigid as hardware. \\

        The BIOS is used to perform initialization during the booting process
        and to provide runtime services for operating systems and programs.
        Being a critical component for the startup of personal computers,
        acting as an intermediary between the computer's hardware and its
        operating system, the BIOS is embedded on a chip on the motherboard
        and is the first code that runs when a PC is powered on.  The concept
        of BIOS has its roots in the early days of personal computing. It
        was first developed by IBM for their IBM PC, which was introduced
        in 1981 \cite{freiberger2000fire}.  The term BIOS itself was
        coined by Gary Kildall, who developed the CP/M (Control Program for
        Microcomputers) operating system \cite{shustek2016kildall}. In CP/M,
        BIOS was used to describe a component that interfaced directly
        with the hardware, allowing the operating system to be somewhat
        hardware-independent. \\

        \begin{figure}[H]
            \centering
            \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{images/IBM_logo.png}
            \caption{The eight-striped wordmark of IBM (1967, public domain,
                     trademarked)}
        \end{figure}

        IBM's implementation of BIOS became a de facto standard in
        the industry, as it was part of the IBM PC's open architecture
        \cite{grewal_ibm_pc}\cite{ibm_pc}, which refers to the design
        philosophy adopted by IBM when developing the IBM Personal Computer
        (PC), introduced in 1981. This architecture is characterized by the use
        of off-the-shelf components and publicly available specifications,
        which allowed other manufacturers to create compatible hardware
        and software.  It was in fact a departure from the proprietary
        systems prevalent at the time, where companies closely guarded their
        designs to maintain control over the hardware and software ecosystem.
        For example, IBM used the Intel 8088 CPU, a well-documented and widely
        available processor, and also the Industry Standard Architecture
        (ISA) bus, which defined how various components like memory, storage,
        and peripherals communicated with the CPU. This open architecture
        allowed other manufacturers to create IBM-compatible computers, also
        known as "clones", which further popularized the BIOS concept. As
        a result, the IBM PC BIOS set the stage for a standardized method
        of interacting with computer hardware, which has evolved over the
        years but remains fundamentally the same in principle. IBM also
        published detailed technical documentation at that time, including
        circuit diagrams, BIOS listings, and interface specifications. This
        transparency allowed other companies to understand and replicate
        the IBM PC's functionality \cite{freiberger2000fire}.

        \subsection{Functionalities and limitations}

        When a computer is powered on, the BIOS executes a Power-On
        Self-Test (POST), a diagnostic sequence that verifies the integrity
        and functionality of critical hardware components such as the CPU,
        RAM, disk drives, keyboard, and other peripherals \cite{wiki_bios}.
        This process ensures that all essential hardware components are
        operational before the system attempts to load the operating system.
        If any issues are detected, the BIOS generates error messages or
        beep codes to alert the user.  Following the successful completion
        of POST, the BIOS runs the bootstrap loader, a small program that
        identifies the operating system's bootloader on a storage device,
        such as a hard drive, floppy disk, or optical drive.  The bootstrap
        loader then transfers control to the OS bootloader, initiating
        the process of loading the operating system into the computer's
        memory and starting it. This step effectively bridges the gap
        between hardware initialization and operating system execution.
        The BIOS also provides a set of low-level software routines known
        as interrupts. These routines enable software to perform basic
        input/output operations, such as reading from the keyboard, writing
        to the display, and accessing disk drives, without needing to manage
        the hardware directly. By providing standardized interfaces for
        hardware components, the BIOS simplifies software development and
        improves compatibility across different hardware configurations
        \cite{ibm_pc}. \\

        \begin{figure}[H]
            \centering
            \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{images/bios_chip.jpg}
            \caption{An AMI BIOS chip from a Dell 310, by Jud McCranie
                     (CC BY-SA 4.0, 2018)}
        \end{figure}

        Despite its essential role, the early BIOS had several limitations.
        One significant limitation was its limited storage capacity.
        Early BIOS firmware was stored in Read-Only Memory (ROM) chips with
        very limited storage, often just a few kilobytes. This constrained
        the complexity and functionality of the BIOS, limiting it to only the
        most essential tasks needed to start the system and provide basic
        hardware control. The original BIOS was also non-extensible. ROM
        chips were typically soldered onto the motherboard, making updates
        difficult and costly. Bug fixes, updates for new hardware support,
        or enhancements required replacing the ROM chip, leading to challenges
        in maintaining and upgrading systems. Furthermore, the early BIOS was
        tailored for the specific hardware configurations of the initial IBM
        PC models, which included a limited set of peripherals and expansion
        options. As new hardware components and peripherals were developed,
        the BIOS often needed to be updated to support them, which was not
        always feasible or timely.  Performance bottlenecks were another
        limitation. The BIOS provided basic input/output operations that
        were often slower than direct hardware access methods. For example,
        disk I/O operations through BIOS interrupts were slower compared
        to later direct access methods provided by operating systems,
        resulting in performance bottlenecks, especially for disk-intensive
        operations. This inflexibility restricts the ability to support new
        hardware and technologies efficiently\cite{anderson_2018}.  Early BIOS
        implementations also had minimal security features. There were no
        mechanisms to verify the integrity of the BIOS code or to protect
        against unauthorized modifications, leaving systems vulnerable to
        attacks that could alter the BIOS and potentially compromise the
        entire system, such as rootkits and firmware viruses.  Added to that,
        the traditional BIOS operates in 16-bit real mode, a constraint that
        limits the amount of code and memory it can address. This limitation
        hinders the performance and complexity of firmware, making it less
        suitable for modern computing needs \cite{intel_uefi}.  Additionally,
        BIOS relies on the Master Boot Record (MBR) partitioning scheme,
        which supports a maximum disk size of 2 terabytes and allows only
        four primary partitions \cite{uefi_spec}\cite{russinovich2012}.
        This constraint has become a significant drawback as storage
        capacities have increased.  Furthermore, the traditional BIOS has
        limited flexibility and is challenging to update or extend. This
        inflexibility restricts the ability to support new hardware and
        technologies efficiently \cite{anderson_2018}\cite{acmcs2015}.

    \section{Modern BIOS and UEFI}

        \subsection{Transition from traditional BIOS to UEFI (Unified
        Extensible Firmware Interface)}

        All the limitations listed earlier caused a transition to a more
        modern firmware interface, designed to address the shortcomings of
        the traditional BIOS. This section delves into the historical context
        of this shift, the driving factors behind it, and the advantages
        UEFI offers over the traditional BIOS. \\

        The development of UEFI began in the mid-1990s as part of the
        Intel Boot Initiative, which aimed to modernize the boot process
        and overcome the limitations of the traditional BIOS. By 2005, the
        Unified EFI Forum, a consortium of technology companies including
        Intel, AMD, and Microsoft, had formalized the UEFI specification
        \cite{uefi_spec}. UEFI was designed to address the shortcomings of
        the traditional BIOS, providing several key improvements.

        \begin{figure}[H]
            \centering
            \includegraphics[width=0.25\textwidth]{images/uefi_logo.png}
            \caption{The UEFI logo (public domain, 2010)}
        \end{figure}

        One of the most significant advancements of UEFI is its support for
        32-bit and 64-bit modes, allowing it to address more memory and
        run more complex firmware programs. This capability enables UEFI
        to handle the increased demands of modern hardware and software
        \cite{intel_uefi}\cite{shin2011}.  Additionally, UEFI uses the GUID
        Partition Table (GPT) instead of the MBR, supporting disks larger
        than 2 terabytes and allowing for a nearly unlimited number of
        partitions \cite{microsoft_uefi}\cite{russinovich2012}.

        Improved boot performance is another driving factor. UEFI
        provides faster boot times compared to the traditional BIOS,
        thanks to its efficient hardware and software initialization
        processes. This improvement is particularly beneficial for systems
        with complex hardware configurations, where quick boot times
        are essential  \cite{intel_uefi}.  UEFI's modular architecture
        makes it more extensible and easier to update compared to the
        traditional BIOS. This design allows for the addition of drivers,
        applications, and other components without requiring a complete
        firmware overhaul, providing greater flexibility and adaptability
        to new technologies  \cite{acmcs2015}. UEFI also includes enhanced
        security features such as \textit{Secure Boot}, which ensures that
        only trusted software can be executed during the boot process,
        thereby protecting the system from unauthorized modifications and
        malware \cite{anderson_2018}\cite{chang2013}. \\

        The industry-wide support and standardization of UEFI have accelerated
        its adoption across various platforms and devices. Major industry
        players, including Intel, AMD, and Microsoft, have adopted UEFI as
        the new standard for firmware interfaces, ensuring broad compatibility
        and interoperability \cite{uefi_spec}.

        \subsection{An other way with \textit{coreboot}}

        While UEFI has become the dominant firmware interface for modern
        computing systems, it is not without its critics. Some of the primary
        concerns about UEFI include its complexity, potential security
        vulnerabilities, and the degree of control it provides to hardware
        manufacturers over the boot process.  Originally known as LinuxBIOS,
        \textit{coreboot}, is a free firmware project initiated in 1999 by
        Ron Minnich and his team at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. The
        project's primary goal was to create a fast, lightweight, and
        flexible firmware solution that could initialize hardware and
        boot operating systems quickly, while remaining transparent and
        auditable\cite{coreboot}. As an alternative to UEFI, \textit{coreboot}
        offers a different approach to firmware that aims to address some
        of these concerns and continue the evolution of BIOS.\\

        One of the main advantages of \textit{coreboot} over UEFI is its
        simplicity, as it is designed to perform only the minimal tasks
        required to initialize hardware and pass control to a payload, such
        as a bootloader or operating system kernel. This minimalist approach
        reduces the attack surface and potential for security vulnerabilities,
        as there is less code that could be exploited by malicious actors
        \cite{rudolph2007}.  Another significant benefit of \textit{coreboot}
        is its libre nature.  Unlike UEFI, which is controlled by a consortium
        of hardware and software vendors, \textit{coreboot}'s source code
        is freely available and can be audited, modified, and improved by
        anyone. This transparency ensures that security researchers and
        developers can review the code for potential vulnerabilities and
        contribute to its improvement, fostering a community-driven approach
        to firmware development\cite{coreboot}.  This project also supports
        a wide range of bootloaders, called payloads, allowing users to
        customize their boot process to suit their specific needs. Popular
        payloads include SeaBIOS, which provides legacy BIOS compatibility, and
        Tianocore, which offers UEFI functionality within the \textit{coreboot}
        framework.  This flexibility allows \textit{coreboot} to be used in
        a variety of environments, from embedded systems to high-performance
        servers \cite{coreboot_payloads}.  \\

        \begin{figure}[H]
            \centering
            \includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{images/coreboot_logo.png}
            \caption{The \textit{coreboot} logo, by Konsult Stuge \&
            coresystems
                     (coreboot logo license, 2008)}
        \end{figure}

        Despite its advantages, \textit{coreboot} is not without its
        challenges.  The project relies heavily on community contributions, and
        support for new hardware often lags behind that of UEFI. Additionally,
        the minimalist design of \textit{coreboot} means that some advanced
        features provided by UEFI are not available by default. However,
        the \textit{coreboot} community continues to work on adding
        new features and improving compatibility with modern hardware or
        security issues \cite{coreboot_challenges}. For example, it provides
        a \textit{verified boot} function, allowing to prevent rootkits and
        other attacks based on firmware modifications \cite{coreboot_docs}.
        However, it's important to note that \textit{coreboot} is not entirely
        free in all aspects. Many modern processors and chipsets require
        \textit{proprietary blobs}, short for \textit{Binary Large Object},
        which is a collection of binary data stored as a single entity. These
        blobs are necessary for \textit{coreboot} to function correctly on
        a wide range of hardware, but they compromise the goal of having
        a fully free firmware one day \cite{blobs}, since these blobs are
        used for certain functionalities such as memory initialization and
        hardware management.

        \begin{figure}[H]
            \centering
            \includegraphics[width=0.25\textwidth]{images/gnuboot.png}
            \caption{The \textit{GNU Boot} logo, by Jason Self (CC0, 2020)}
        \end{figure}

        To address these concerns, the GNU Project has developed GNU Boot,
        a fully free distribution of firmware, including \textit{coreboot},
        that aims to be entirely free by avoiding the use of proprietary
        binary blobs. GNU Boot is committed to using only free software
        for all aspects of firmware, making it a preferred choice for users
        and organizations that prioritize software freedom and transparency
        \cite{gnuboot}.

    \section{Shift in firmware responsibilities}

        Initially, the BIOS's primary function was to perform the POST, a basic
        diagnostic testing process to check the system's hardware components
        and ensure they were functioning correctly. This included verifying
        the CPU, memory, and essential peripherals before passing control to
        the operating system's bootloader. This process was relatively simple,
        given the limited capabilities and straightforward architecture of
        early computer systems \cite{anderson_2018}.

        As computer systems advanced, particularly with the advent of more
        sophisticated memory technologies, the role of firmware expanded
        significantly. Modern memory modules operate at much higher
        speeds and capacities than their predecessors, requiring precise
        configuration to ensure stability and optimal performance. Firmware
        now plays a critical role in managing the memory controller, which is
        responsible for regulating data flow between the processor and memory
        modules. This includes configuring memory frequencies, voltage levels,
        and timing parameters to match the specifications of the installed
        memory \cite{uefi_spec}\cite{BKDG}.  Beyond memory management,
        firmware responsibilities have broadened to encompass a wide range
        of system-critical tasks. One key area is power management, where
        firmware is responsible for optimizing energy consumption across
        various components of the system. Efficient power management is
        essential not only for extending battery life in portable devices
        but also for reducing thermal output and ensuring system longevity
        in desktop and server environments.  Moreover, modern firmware takes
        on significant roles in hardware initialization and configuration,
        which were traditionally handled by the operating system. For
        example, the initialization of USB controllers, network interfaces,
        and storage devices is now often managed by the firmware during
        the early stages of the boot process. This shift ensures that the
        operating system can seamlessly interact with hardware from the
        moment it takes control, reducing boot times and improving overall
        system reliability \cite{uefi_spec}.  Security has also become a
        paramount concern for modern firmware. UEFI (Unified Extensible
        Firmware Interface), which has largely replaced traditional BIOS
        in modern systems, includes features which prevents unauthorized
        or malicious software from loading during the boot process. This
        helps protect the system from rootkits and other low-level malware
        that could compromise the integrity of the operating system before
        it even starts \cite{uefi_spec}.  In the context of performance
        tuning, firmware sometimes also plays a key role in enabling and
        managing overclocking, particularly for the memory subsystem. By
        allowing adjustments to memory frequencies, voltages, and timings,
        firmware provides tools for enthusiasts to push their systems beyond
        default limits. At the same time, it includes safeguards to manage
        the risks of instability and hardware damage, balancing performance
        gains with system reliability \cite{anderson_2018}. \\

        In summary, the evolution of firmware from simple hardware
        initialization routines to complex management systems reflects the
        increasing sophistication of modern computer architectures. Firmware
        is now a critical layer that not only ensures the correct functioning
        of hardware components but also optimizes performance, manages power
        consumption, and enhances system security, making it an indispensable
        part of contemporary computing. \\

        This document will focus on \textit{coreboot} during the next parts
        to study how modern firmware interact with hardware and also as a
        basis for improvements.

\chapter{Characteristics of ASUS KGPE-D16 mainboard}

    \begin{figure}[H]
        \centering \includegraphics[width=0.9\textwidth]{images/kgpe-d16.png}
        \caption{The KGPE-D16 (CC BY-SA 4.0, 2021)}
    \end{figure}

    \newpage

    \section{Overview of ASUS KGPE-D16 hardware}

        The ASUS KGPE-D16 server mainboard is a dual-socket motherboard
        designed to support AMD Family 10h/15h series processors. Released
        in 2009, this mainboard was later awarded the \textit{Respects Your
        Freedom} (RYF) certification in March 2017, underscoring its commitment
        to fully free software compatibility \cite{fsf_ryf}. Indeed, this
        mainboard can be operated with a fully free firmware such as GNU
        Boot \cite{gnuboot_status}. \\

        This mainboard is equipped with robust hardware components designed to
        meet the demands of high-performance computing. It features 16 DDR3
        DIMM slots, capable of supporting up to 256GB of memory, although
        certain configurations may be limited to 192GB, with some reports
        suggesting the potential to support 256GB under specific conditions.
        In terms of expandability, the KGPE-D16 includes multiple PCIe
        slots, with five physical slots available, although only four
        can be used simultaneously due to slot sharing. For storage, the
        mainboard provides several SATA ports. Networking capabilities are
        enhanced by integrated dual gigabit Ethernet ports, which provide
        high-speed connectivity essential for data-intensive tasks and network
        communication \cite{asus_kgpe_d16_manual}.  Additionally, the board
        is equipped with various peripheral interfaces, including USB ports,
        audio outputs, and other I/O ports, ensuring compatibility with a
        wide range of external devices. \\

        \begin{figure}[H]
            \centering
            \includegraphics[width=0.8\textwidth]{images/fig1_schema_basique.png}
            \caption{Basic schematics of the ASUS KGPE-D16 Mainboard, ASUS
            (2011)} \label{fig:d16_basic_schematics}
        \end{figure}

        The physical layout of the ASUS KGPE-D16 is meticulously designed
        to optimize airflow, cooling, and power distribution. All of this
        is critical for maintaining system stability, particularly under
        heavy computational loads, as this board was designed for server
        operations. In particular, key components such as the CPU sockets,
        memory slots, and PCIe slots are strategically positioned. \\

        \begin{figure}[H]
            \centering
            \includegraphics[width=0.8\textwidth]{images/kgpe-d16_real.png}
            \caption{The KGPE-D16, viewed from the top (CC BY-SA 4.0, 2024)}
            \label{fig:d16_top_view}
        \end{figure}

    \section{Chipset}

        Before diving into the specific components, it is essential
        to understand the roles of the northbridge and southbridge in
        traditional motherboard architecture. These chipsets historically
        managed communication between the CPU and other critical components
        of the system \cite{amd_chipsets}. \\

        The northbridge is a chipset on the motherboard that traditionally
        manages high-speed communication between the CPU, memory (RAM), and
        graphics card (if applicable). It serves as a hub for data that needs
        to move quickly between these components. On the ASUS KGPE-D16, the
        functions typically associated with the northbridge are divided between
        the CPU’s internal northbridge and an external SR5690 northbridge
        chip. The SR5690 specifically acts as a translator and switch,
        handling the HyperTransport interface, a high-speed communication
        protocol used by AMD processors, and converting it to ALink and PCIe
        interfaces, which are crucial for connecting peripherals like graphics
        cards \cite{SR5690BDG}.  Additionally, the northbridge on the KGPE-D16
        incorporates the IOMMU (Input-Output Memory Management Unit), which
        is crucial for ensuring secure and efficient memory access by I/O
        devices. The IOMMU allows for the virtualization of memory addresses,
        providing device isolation and preventing unauthorized memory access,
        which is particularly important in environments that run multiple
        virtual machines \cite{amd_chipsets}\cite{northbridge_wiki}. \\

        The southbridge, on the other hand, is responsible for handling
        lower-speed, peripheral interfaces such as the PCI, USB, and
        IDE/SATA connections, as well as managing onboard audio and
        network controllers. On the KGPE-D16, these functions are managed
        by the SP5100 southbridge chip, which integrates several critical
        functions including the LPC bridge, SATA controllers, and other
        essential I/O operations \cite{amd_chipsets}\cite{southbridge_wiki}.
        It is essentially an ALink bus controller and includes the hardware
        interrupt controller, the IOAPIC. Interrupts from peripheral always
        pass through the northbridge (fig. \ref{fig:d16_ioapic}), since it
        translates ALink to HyperTransport for the CPUs and contains the
        IOMMU \cite{SR5690BDG}. \\

        \begin{figure}[H]
            \centering \includegraphics[width=0.9\textwidth]{images/ioapic.png}
            \caption{Functional diagram presenting the IOAPIC function of
            the SP5100,
                     ASUS (2011)}
            \label{fig:d16_ioapic}
        \end{figure}

        In addition to the northbridge and southbridge, the KGPE-D16 also
        contains specialized chips for managing input/output operations and
        system health monitoring. The WINBOND W83667HG-A Super I/O chip handles
        traditional I/O functions such as legacy serial and parallel ports,
        keyboard, and mouse interfaces, but also the SPI chip that contains the
        firmware \cite{winbond}. Meanwhile, the Nuvoton W83795G/ADG Hardware
        Monitor oversees the system’s health by monitoring temperatures,
        voltages, and fan speeds, ensuring that the system operates within
        safe parameters \cite{nuvoton}.  On the KGPE-D16, access to the Super
        I/O from a CPU core is done through the SR5690, then the SP5100,
        as that can be observed on the functional diagram of the chipset
        (fig. \ref{fig:d16_chipset}) \cite{SR5690BDG}.

        \begin{figure}[H]
            \centering
            \includegraphics[width=0.8\textwidth]{images/fig2_diagramme_chipset.png}
            \caption{Functional diagram of the KGPE-D16 chipset (CC BY-SA 4.0,
            2024)} \label{fig:d16_chipset}
        \end{figure}

    \section{Processors}

        The ASUS KGPE-D16 supports AMD Family 10h processors, but
        it is important to note that Vikings, a known vendor for
        libre-software-compatible hardware, does not recommend using the
        Opteron 6100 series due to the lack of IOMMU support, which is
        critical for security. Fortunately, AMD Family 15h processors are also
        supported. However, the Opteron 6300 series, while supported, requires
        proprietary microcode updates for stability, IOMMU functionality,
        and fixes for specific vulnerabilities, including a gain-root-
        via-NMI exploit. The Opteron 6200 series does not suffer from these
        problems and works properly without any proprietary microcode update
        needed \cite{vikings}. \\

        \begin{figure}[H]
            \centering
            \includegraphics[width=0.9\textwidth]{images/opteron6200_annoté.png}
            \caption{Annotated photography of an Opteron 6200 series
            CPU (2024), from a photography by AMD Inc. (2008)}
            \label{fig:opteron2600}
        \end{figure}

        The Opteron 6200 series, part of the Bulldozer microarchitecture,
        was designed to target high-performance server applications. These
        processors feature 16 cores, organized into 8 Bulldozer modules,
        with each module containing two integer cores that shared
        resources like the floating-point unit (FPU) and L2 cache
        (fig. \ref{fig:opteron2600}, \ref{fig:opteron2600_diagram})
        \cite{amd_6200}\cite{anandtech_bulldozer}.

        The architecture of the Opteron 6200 series is built around AMD's
        Bulldozer core design, which uses Clustered Multithreading (CMT) to
        maximize resource utilization. This is a technique where each processor
        module contains two integer cores that share certain resources like
        the floating-point unit (FPU), L2 cache, and instruction fetch/decode
        stages. Unlike traditional multithreading, where each core handles
        multiple threads, CMT allows two cores to share resources to improve
        parallel processing efficiency. This approach aims to balance
        performance and resource usage, particularly in multi- threaded
        workloads, though it can lead to some performance trade-offs in
        single-threaded tasks. In the Opteron 6272, the processor consists
        of eight modules, effectively creating 16 integer cores. Due to
        the CMT architecture, each Opteron 6272 chip functions as two CPUs
        within a single processor, each with its own set of cores, L2 caches,
        and shared L3 cache. Here, one CPU is made by four modules, each
        module in it sharing certain components, such as the FPU and L2 cache,
        between two integer cores. The L3 cache is shared across these modules.
        HyperTransport links provide high-speed communication between the two
        sockets of the KGPE-D16. Shared L3 cache and direct memory access are
        provided by each socket \cite{amd_6200}\cite{hill_impact_caching}. \\

        This architecture also integrates a quad-channel DDR3 memory
        controller directly into the processor die, which facilitates high
        bandwidth and low latency access to memory. This memory controller
        supports DDR3 memory speeds up to 1600 MHz and connects directly
        to the memory modules via the memory bus. By integrating the memory
        controller into the processor, the Opteron 6200 series reduces memory
        access latency, enhancing overall performance
        \cite{amd_6200}\cite{amd_ddr3_guide}.
        It is interesting to note that Opterons
        incorporate the internal northbridge that we cited previously. The
        traditional northbridge functions, such as memory controller and PCIe
        interface management, are partially integrated into the processor. This
        integration reduces the distance data must travel between the CPU and
        memory, decreasing latency and improving performance, particularly
        in memory-intensive applications \cite{amd_6200}. \\


        \begin{figure}[H]
            \centering \includegraphics[width=0.8\textwidth]{
                                        images/fig3_img_dual_processor_node.png}
            \caption{Functional diagram of an Opteron 6200 package
                    (CC BY-SA 4.0, 2024)}
            \label{fig:opteron2600_diagram}
        \end{figure}

        Power efficiency was a key focus in the design of the Opteron 6200
        series.  Despite the high core count, the processor includes several
        power management features, such as Dynamic Power Management (DPM)
        and Turbo Core technology. These features allow the processor to
        adjust power usage based on workload demands, balancing performance
        with energy consumption. However, the Bulldozer architecture's
        focus on high clock speeds and multi-threaded performance resulted
        in higher power consumption compared to competing architectures
        \cite{anandtech_bulldozer}. A special model of the series, called
        \textit{high efficiency} models, solve a bit this problem by proposing
        a bit less performant processor but with a power consumption divided
        by a factor from 1.5 to 2.0 in some cases. \\

        The processor connected to the I/O hub is known as the Bootstrap
        Processor (BSP).  The BSP is responsible for starting up the system
        by executing the initial firmware code from the reset vector,
        a specific memory address where the CPU begins execution after a
        reset \cite{amd_bsp}. Core 0 of the BSP, called the Bootstrap Core
        (BSC), initiates this process. During early initialization, the
        BSP performs several critical tasks, such as memory initialization,
        and bringing other CPU cores online. One of its duties is storing
        Built-In Self-Test (BIST) information, which involves checking the
        integrity of the processor's internal components to ensure they are
        functioning correctly. The BSP also determines the type of reset
        that has occurred—whether it's a cold reset, which happens when
        the system is powered on from an off state, or a warm reset, which
        is a restart without turning off the power. Identifying the reset
        type is crucial for deciding which initialization procedures need
        to be executed \cite{amd_bsp}\cite{BKDG}.

    \section{Baseboard Management Controller}

        The Baseboard Management Controller (BMC) on the KGPE-D16 motherboard,
        specifically the ASpeed AST2050, plays a role in the server's
        architecture by managing out-of-band communication and control of
        the hardware.  The AST2050 is based on an ARM926EJ-S processor,
        a low-power 32-bit ARM architecture designed for embedded systems
        \cite{ast2050_architecture}. This architecture is well-suited for BMCs
        due to its efficiency and capability to handle multiple management
        tasks concurrently without significant resource demands from the
        main system. \\

        The AST2050 features several key components that contribute to
        its functionality.  It includes an integrated VGA controller,
        which enables remote graphical management through KVM-over-IP
        (Keyboard, Video, Mouse), a critical feature for administrators who
        need to interact with the system remotely, including BIOS updates
        and troubleshooting \cite{ast2050_kvm}. Additionally, the AST2050
        integrates a dedicated memory controller, which supports up to 256MB
        of DDR2 RAM.  This allows it to handle complex tasks and maintain
        responsiveness during management operations \cite{ast2050_memory}.
        The BMC also features a network interface controller (NIC) dedicated to
        management traffic, ensuring that remote management does not interfere
        with the primary network traffic of the server. This separation is
        vital for maintaining secure and uninterrupted system management,
        especially in environments where uptime is critical \cite{ast2050_nic}.
        Another important architectural aspect of the AST2050 is its support
        for multiple I/O interfaces, including I2C, GPIO, UART, and USB,
        which allow it to interface with various sensors and peripherals
        on the motherboard \cite{ast2050_io}. This versatility enables
        comprehensive monitoring of hardware health, such as temperature
        sensors, fan speeds, and power supplies, all of which can be managed
        and configured through the BMC. \\

        When combined with OpenBMC \cite{openbmc_wiki}, a libre firmware
        that can be run on the AST2050 thanks to Raptor Engineering
        \cite{raptor_engineering}, the architecture of the BMC becomes even
        more powerful. OpenBMC takes advantage of the AST2050's architecture,
        providing a flexible and customizable environment that can be tailored
        to specific use cases. This includes adding or modifying features
        related to security, logging, and network management, all within
        the BMC's ARM architecture framework \cite{openbmc_customization}.

\chapter{Key components in modern firmware}

    \section{General structure of coreboot}

        The firmware of the ASUS KGPE-D16 is crucial in ensuring the proper
        functioning and optimization of the mainboard's hardware components.
        For this to be done efficiently, \textit{coreboot} is organized in
        different stages (fig. \ref{fig:coreboot_stages}) \cite{coreboot_docs}.

        \begin{figure}[H]
            \centering
            \includegraphics[width=0.9\textwidth]{
                                        images/fig9_coreboot_stages.png}
            \caption{\textit{coreboot}'s stages timeline, by
                     \textit{coreboot} project (CC BY-SA 4.0, 2009)}
            \label{fig:coreboot_stages}
        \end{figure}

        Being a complex project with ambitious goals, \textit{coreboot} decided
        early on to establish an file-system-based architecture for its images
        (also called ROMs). This special file-system is CBFS (which stands for
        coreboot file system). The CBFS architecture consists of a binary image
        that can be interpreted as a physical disk, referred to here as ROM. A
        number of independent components, each with a header added to the data,
        are located within the ROM. The components are nominally arranged
        sequentially, although they are aligned along a predefined boundary
        (fig. \ref{fig:coreboot_diagram}). \\

        Each stage is compiled as a separate binary and inserted into the CBFS
        with custom compression. The bootblock stage is usually not compressed,
        while the ramstage and the payload are compressed with LZMA. Each stage
        loads the next stage at a given address (possibly decompressing it in
        the process). \\

        Some stages are relocatable and can be placed anywhere in the RAM.
        These stages are typically cached in the CBMEM for faster loading times
        during wake-up. The CBMEM is a specific memory area used by the
        \textit{coreboot} firmware to store important data structures and logs
        during the boot process. This area is typically allocated in the
        system's RAM and is used to store various types of runtime information
        that it might need to reference after the initial boot stages. \\

        In general, \textit{coreboot} manages main memory through a structured
        memory map (fig. \ref{tab:memmap}), allocating specific address ranges
        for various hardware functions and system operations. The first 640KB
        of memory space is typically unused by coreboot due to historical
        reasons. Graphics-related operations use the VGA address range
        and the text mode address ranges. It also reserves the higher for
        operating system use, ensuring that critical system components
        like the IOAPIC and TPM registers have dedicated address spaces.
        This structured approach helps maintain system stability and
        compatibility across different platforms and allows for a reset vector
        fixed at an address (\textit{0xFFFFFFF0}), regardless of the ROM size.
        Payloads are typically loaded into high memory, above the reserved areas
        for hardware components and system resources. The exact memory location
        can vary depending on the system's configuration, but generally,
        payloads are placed in a region of memory that does not conflict with
        the firmware code or the reserved memory map areas, such as the ROM
        mapping ranges. This placement ensures that payloads have sufficient
        space to execute without interfering with other critical memory regions
        allocated \cite{coreboot_mem_management}.

        \begin{table}[ht]
            \makebox[\textwidth][c]{%
                \begin{tabular}{
                                |>{\centering\arraybackslash}p{0.35\textwidth}
                                |>{\centering\arraybackslash}p{0.5\textwidth}|}
                    \hline
                        \texttt{0x00000 - 0x9FFFF}
                    &   Low memory (first 640KB). Never used. \\
                    \hline
                        \texttt{0xA0000 - 0xAFFFF}
                    &   VGA graphics address range. \\
                    \hline
                        \texttt{0xB0000 - 0xB7FFF}
                    &   Monochrome text mode address range.
                        Few motherboards use
                        it, but the KGPE-D16 does. \\
                    \hline
                        \texttt{0xB8000 - 0xBFFFF}
                    &   Text mode address range. \\
                    \hline
                        \texttt{0xFEC00000}
                    &   IOAPIC address. \\
                    \hline
                        \texttt{0xFED44000 - 0xFED4FFFF}
                    &   Address range for TPM registers. \\
                    \hline
                        \texttt{0xFF000000 - 0xFFFFFFFF}
                    &   16 MB ROM mapping address range. \\
                    \hline
                        \texttt{0xFF800000 - 0xFFFFFFFF}
                    &   8 MB ROM mapping address range. \\
                    \hline
                        \texttt{0xFFC00000 - 0xFFFFFFFF}
                    &   4 MB ROM mapping address range. \\
                    \hline
                        \texttt{0xFEC00000 - DEVICE MEM HIGH}
                    &   Reserved area for OS use. \\
                    \hline
                \end{tabular}}
            \caption{\textit{coreboot} memory map}
            \label{tab:memmap}
        \end{table}

        \subsection{Bootblock stage}

            The bootblock is the first stage executed after the CPU reset. The
            beginning of this stage is written in assembly language, and its
            main task is to set everything up for a C environment. The rest, of
            course, is written in C. This stage occupies the last 20k
            (fig. \ref{fig:coreboot_diagram}) of the image and within it is a
            main header containing information about the ROM, including the
            size, component alignment, and the offset of the start of the first
            CBFS component. This block is a mandatory component as it also
            contains the entry point of the firmware. \\

            \begin{figure}[H]
                \centering
                \includegraphics[width=0.8\textwidth]{images/fig8_coreboot_architecture.png}
                \caption{\textit{coreboot} ROM architecture
                         (CC BY-SA 4.0, 2024)}
                \label{fig:coreboot_diagram}
            \end{figure}

            Upon startup, the first responsibility of the bootblock is to
            execute the code from the reset vector located at the conventional
            reset vector in 16-bit real mode. This code is specific to the
            processor architecture and, for our board, is stored in the
            architecture-specific sources for x86 within \textit{coreboot}.
            The entry point into \textit{coreboot} code is defined in two files
            in the \path{src/cpu/x86/16bit/} directory: \texttt{reset16.inc}
            and \texttt{entry16.inc}. The first file serves as a jump to the
            \texttt{\_start16bit} procedure defined in the second. Due to space
            constraints this function must remain below the 1MB address space
            because the IOMMU has not yet been configured to allow anything
            else. \\

            During this early initialization, the Bootstrap Core (BSC) performs
            several critical tasks while the other cores remain dormant. These
            tasks include saving the results (and displaying them if necessary)
            of the Built-in Self-Test (BIST), formerly known as POST;
            invalidating the TLB to prevent any address translation errors;
            determining the type of reset (e.g., cold start or warm start);
            creating and loading an empty Interrupt Descriptor Table (IDT) to
            prevent the use of "legacy" interrupts from real mode until
            protected mode is reached. In practice, this means that at the
            slightest exception, the BSC will halt. The code then switches to
            32-bit protected mode by mapping the first 4 GB of address space for
            code and data, and finally jumps to the 32-bit reset code labeled
            \texttt{\_protected\_start}. \\


            Once in protected mode, which constitutes the "normal" operating
            mode for the processor, the next step is to set up the execution
            environment. To achieve this, the code contained in
            \path{src/cpu/x86/32bit/entry32.inc}, followed by
            \path{src/cpu/x86/64bit/entry64.inc}, and finally
            \path{src/arch/x86/bootblock_crt0.S}, establishes a temporary
            stack, transitions to long mode (64-bit addressing) with paging
            enabled, and sets up a proper exception vector table. The execution
            then jumps to chipset-specific code via the
            \texttt{bootblock\_pre\_c\_entry} procedure.
            Once these steps are completed, the bootblock has a minimal C
            environment. The procedure now involves allocating
            memory for the BSS, and decompressing and loading the next stage. \\

            The jump to \texttt{\_bootblock\_pre\_entry} leads to the code files
            \path{src/soc/amd/common/block/cpu/car/cache_as_ram.S} and
            \path{src/vendorcode/amd/agesa/f15tn/gcccar.inc}, which are specific
            to AMD chipsets. It's worth noting that these files were developed by
            AMD's engineers as part of the \textit{AGESA} project. The operations
            performed at this stage are related to pre-RAM memory initialization.
            All cores of all processors (up to a limit of 64 cores) are started.
            The \textit{Cache-As-Ram} is configured using the
            Memory-type range registers. These registers allow the
            specification of a specific configuration for a given memory area
            \cite{BKDG}.
            In this case, the area that should correspond to physical memory is
            mapped to the cache, while other areas, such as PCI or other bus
            zones, are configured accordingly. A specific stack is set up for
            each core of each processor (within the arbitrary limit of 64 cores
            and 7 nodes, meaning 7 Core 0s). Core 0s receive 16KB, while the
            Bootstrap Core (BSC) gets 64KB. The other cores receive 4KB each.
            All cores except the BSC are halted and will restart during the
            romstage. Finally, the execution jumps to the entry point of the
            \textit{bootblock} written in C, labeled
            \texttt{bootblock\_c\_entry}.
            This entry point is located in
            \path{src/soc/amd/stoneyridge/bootblock/bootblock.c} and is
            specific to AMD processors. It is the first C routine executed, and
            its role is to verify that the current processor is indeed the BSC,
            allowing the function \path{bootblock_main_with_basetime}
            to be called exclusively by the BSC.

            We are now in the file \path{src/lib/bootblock.c}, written by
            Google's team, and entering the
            \texttt{bootblock\_main\_with\_basetime} function, which immediately
            calls \texttt{bootblock\_main\_with\_timestamp}. At this stage, the
            goal is to start the romstage, but a few more tasks need to be
            completed.

            The \texttt{bootblock\_soc\_early\_init} function is called to
            initialize the I2C bus of the southbridge. The
            \texttt{bootblock\_fch\_early\_init} function is invoked to
            initialize the SPI buses (including the one for the ROM) and the
            serial and "legacy" buses of the southbridge. The CMOS clock is then
            initialized, followed by the pre-initialization of the serial
            console.
            The code then calls the \texttt{bootblock\_mainboard\_init}
            function, which enters, for the first time, the files specific to
            the ASUS KGPE-D16 motherboard:
            \path{src/mainboard/ASUS/kgpe-d16/bootblock.c}.
            This code performs the northbridge initialization via the
            \texttt{bootblock\_northbridge\_init} function found in
            \path{src/northbridge/amd/amdfam10/bootblock.c}. This involves
            locating the HyperTransport bus and enabling the discovery of
            devices connected to it (e.g., processors). The southbridge is
            initialized using the \texttt{bootblock\_southbridge\_init}
            function from \path{src/southbridge/amd/sb700/bootblock.c}.
            This function, largely programmed by Timothy Pearson from Raptor
            Engineering, who performed the first coreboot port for the ASUS
            KGPE-D16, finalizes the activation of the SPI bus and the connection
            to the ROM memory via SuperIO. The state of a recovery jumper is
            then checked (this jumper is intended to reset the CMOS content,
            although it is not fully functional at the moment, as indicated by
            the \texttt{FIXME} comment in the code). Control then returns to
            \texttt{bootblock\_main} in \path{src/lib/bootblock.c}.

            At this point, everything is ready to enter the romstage.
            \textit{coreboot} has successfully started and can now continue its
            execution by calling the \texttt{run\_romstage} function from
            \path{src/lib/prog_loaders.c}. This function begins by locating
            the corresponding segment in the ROM via the southbridge and SPI
            bus using \texttt{prog\_locate}, which utilizes the SPI driver in
            \path{src/drivers/cbfs_spi.c}. The contents of the romstage are
            then copied into the cache-as-ram by
            \texttt{cbfs\_prog\_stage\_load}. Finally, the \texttt{prog\_run}
            function transitions to the romstage after switching back to
            32-bit mode.

        \subsection{Romstage}

            The \textit{romstage} in \textit{coreboot} serves the critical function
            of early initialization of peripherals, particularly system memory.
            This stage is crucial for setting up the necessary components for the
            platform's operation, ensuring that everything is in place for
            subsequent stages of the boot process.
            During this phase, \textit{coreboot} configures the Advanced
            Programmable Interrupt Controller (APIC), which is responsible for
            correctly handling interrupts across multiple CPUs, especially in
            systems using Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP). This includes setting
            up the Local APIC on each processor and the IOAPIC, part of the
            southbridge, to ensure that interrupts from peripherals are routed
            to the appropriate CPUs. Additionally, the firmware configures the
            HyperTransport (HT) technology, a high-speed communication protocol
            that facilitates data exchange between the processor and the
            northbridge, ensuring smooth data flow between these components. \\

            The \textit{romstage} begins with a call to the
            \texttt{\_start} function, defined in
            \path{src/cpu/x86/32bit/entry32.inc} via
            \path{src/arch/x86/assembly_entry.S}. We then enter the
            \texttt{cache\_as\_ram\_setup} procedure, written in assembly
            language, located in \path{src/cpu/amd/car/cache_as_ram.inc}. This
            procedure configures the cache to load the future \textit{ramstage}
            and initialize memory based on the number of processors and cores
            present. Once this is completed, the code calls
            \texttt{cache\_as\_ram\_main} in
            \path{src/mainboard/asus/kgpe-d16/romstage.c}, which serves as the
            main function of the \textit{romstage}.
            In the \texttt{cache\_as\_ram\_main} function, after reducing the
            speed of the HyperTransport bus, only the Bootstrap Core (BSC)
            initializes the spinlocks for the serial console, the CMOS storage
            memory (used for saving parameters), and the ROM. At this point, the
            HyperTransport bus is enumerated, and the PCI bridges are
            temporarily disabled. The port 0x80 of the southbridge, used for
            motherboard debugging with \textit{Post Codes}, is also initialized.
            These codes indicate the status of the boot process and can be
            displayed using special PCI cards connected to the system. The
            SuperIO is then initialized to activate the serial port, allowing
            the serial console to follow \textit{coreboot}’s progress in
            real-time. If everything proceeds as expected, the code 0x30 is
            sent, and the boot process continues.
            If the result of the Built-in Self-Test (BIST), saved during the
            \textit{bootblock}, shows no anomalies, all cores of all nodes are
            configured, and they are placed back into sleep mode (except for the
            Core 0s). If everything goes well, the code 0x32 is sent, and the
            process continues. Using the \texttt{enable\_sr5650\_dev8} function,
            the southbridge’s P2P bridge is activated. Additionally, a check is
            performed to ensure that the number of physical processors detected
            does not exceed the number of sockets available on the board. If any
            issues were detected during the BIST, the machine will halt, and the
            error will be displayed on the console. Otherwise, the process
            continues, and the default hardware information table is
            constructed, and the microcode of the physical processors is updated
            if necessary. If everything proceeds correctly, the code 0x33 and
            then 0x34 is sent, and the process continues. The information about
            the physical processors is retrieved using \texttt{amd\_ht\_init},
            and communication between the two sockets is configured via
            \texttt{amd\_ht\_fixup}. This process includes disabling any
            defective HT links (one per socket in this AMD Family 15h chipset).
            If everything is working as expected, the code 0x35 is sent, and
            the boot process continues.
            With the \texttt{finalize\_node\_setup} function, the PCI bus is
            initialized, and a mapping is created
            (\texttt{setup\_mb\_resource\_map}). If all goes well, the code 0x36
            is sent. This is done in parallel across all Core 0s, so the system
            waits for all cores to finish using the
            \texttt{wait\_all\_core0\_started} function. The communication
            between the northbridge and southbridge is prepared using
            \texttt{sr5650\_early\_setup} and
            \texttt{sb7xx\_51xx\_early\_setup}, followed by the activation of
            all cores on all nodes, with the system waiting for all cores to be
            fully initialized. If everything is successful, the code 0x38 is
            sent. \\

            At this point, the timer is activated, and a warm reset is performed
            via the \texttt{soft\_reset} function to validate all configuration
            changes to the HT, PCI buses, and voltage/power settings of the
            processors and buses. This results in a system reboot, passing again
            through the \textit{bootblock}, but much faster this time since the
            system recognizes the warm reset condition. Once this reboot is
            complete, the HyperTransport bus is reconfigured into isochronous
            mode (switching from asynchronous mode), finalizing the
            configuration process. \\

            Memory training and optimization are also key functions of the
            firmware during the \textit{romstage}. This process involves
            adjusting memory settings, such as timings, frequencies, and
            voltages, to ensure that the installed memory modules operate
            efficiently and stably. This step is crucial for achieving optimal
            performance, especially when dealing with large amounts of RAM
            and many CPU cores, as supported by the KGPE-D16. We'll see that
            in detail during the next chapter. \\

            After memory initialization, the process returns to the
            \texttt{cache\_as\_ram\_main} function, where a memory test is
            performed. This involves writing predefined values to specific
            memory locations and then verifying that the values can be read
            back correctly.
            If everything passes successfully, the CBMEM is initialized and
            one sends code \texttt{0x41}. At this point, the configuration of
            the PCI bus is prepared, which will be completed during the ramstage
            by configuring the PCI bridges. The system then exits
            \texttt{cache\_as\_ram\_main} and returns to
            \texttt{cache\_as\_ram\_setup} to finalize the process.

            \texttt{coreboot} then transitions to the next stage, known as the
            postcar stage, where it exits the cache-as-RAM mode and
            begins using physical RAM.

        \subsection{Ramstage}

            The ramstage performs the general initialization of all peripherals,
            including the initialization of PCI devices, on-chip devices, the
            TPM (if not done by verstage), graphics (optional), and the CPU
            (setting up the System Management Mode). After this initialization,
            tables are written to inform the payload or operating system about
            the existence and current state of the hardware. These tables
            include ACPI tables (specific to x86), SMBIOS tables (specific to
            x86), coreboot tables, and updates to the device tree (specific to
            ARM). Additionally, the ramstage locks down the hardware and
            firmware by applying write protection to boot media, locking
            security-related registers, and locking SMM (specific to x86)
            \cite{coreboot_docs}.
            Effective resource allocation is essential for system stability,
            particularly in complex configurations involving multiple CPUs
            and peripherals. This stage manages initial resource allocation,
            resolving any conflicts between hardware components to prevent
            resource contention and ensure smooth operation and security, which
            is a major concern in modern systems. This includes support for
            IOMMU, which is crucial for preventing unauthorized direct memory
            access (DMA) attacks, particularly in virtualized environments
            (however there are still vulnerabilities that can be exploited,
            such as sub-page or IOTLB-based attacks or even configuration
            weaknesses \cite{medeiros2017}\cite{markuze2021}). \\

            \subsubsection{Advanced Configuration and Power Interface}

                The Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) is a
                critical component of modern computing systems, providing an
                open standard for device configuration and power management by
                the operating system (OS). Developed in 1996 by Intel,
                Microsoft, and Toshiba, ACPI replaced the older Advanced Power
                Management (APM) standard with more advanced and flexible power
                management capabilities \cite{intel_acpi_spec}. At its core,
                ACPI is implemented through a series of data structures and
                executable code known as ACPI tables, which are provided by the
                system firmware and interpreted by the OS. These tables describe
                various aspects of the system, including hardware resources,
                device power states, and thermal zones. The ACPI Specification
                outlines these structures and provides the necessary
                standardization for interoperability across different platforms
                and operating systems \cite{acpi_os_support}. These tables are
                used by the OS to perform low-level task, including managing
                power states of the CPU, controlling the voltage and frequency
                scaling (also known as Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling,
                or DVFS), and coordinating power delivery to peripherals. \\

                The ACPI Component Architecture (ACPICA) is the reference
                implementation of ACPI, providing a common codebase that can be
                used by OS developers to integrate ACPI support. ACPICA includes
                tools and libraries that allow for the parsing and execution of
                ACPI Machine Language (AML) code, which is embedded within the
                ACPI tables \cite{acpi_programming}. One of the key tools in
                ACPICA is the Intel ACPI Source Language (IASL) compiler, which
                converts ACPI Source Language (ASL) code into AML bytecode,
                allowing firmware developers to write custom ACPI
                methods \cite{intel_acpi_spec}. The triggering of ACPI events is
                managed through a combination of hardware signals and software
                routines. For example, when a user presses the power button on a
                system, an ACPI event is generated, which is then handled by the
                OS. This event might trigger the system to enter a low-power
                state, such as sleep or hibernation, depending on the
                configuration provided by the ACPI tables
                \cite{acpi_os_support}. These power states are defined in the
                ACPI specification, with global states (G0 to G3) representing
                different levels of system power consumption, and device states
                (D0 to D3) representing individual device power levels. \\

                The ASUS KGPE-D16 mainboard, which is designed for server and
                high-performance computing environments, needs ACPI for managing
                its power distribution across multiple CPUs and attached
                peripherals. ACPI is integral in controlling the power states of
                various components, thereby optimizing performance and energy
                use. Additionally, the firmware on the KGPE-D16 uses ACPI tables
                to manage system temperature and fan speed, ensuring reliable
                operation under heavy workloads \cite{asus_kgpe_d16_manual}.

            \subsubsection{System Management Mode}

                System Management Mode (SMM) is a highly privileged operating
                mode provided by x86 processors for handling system-level
                functions such as power management, hardware control, and other
                critical tasks that are to be isolated from the OS and
                applications. Introduced by Intel, SMM operates in an
                environment separate from the main operating system, offering a
                controlled space for executing sensitive operations
                \cite{uefi_smm_security}. \\

                SMM is triggered by a System Management Interrupt (SMI), which
                is a non-maskable interrupt that causes the CPU to save its
                current state and switch to executing code stored in a protected
                area of memory called System Management RAM (SMRAM). SMRAM is a
                specialized memory region that is isolated from the rest of the
                system, making it inaccessible to the OS and preventing
                tampering or interference from other software
                \cite{heasman2007}.
                Within SMM, the firmware can execute various low-level functions
                that require direct hardware control or need to be protected
                from the OS. This includes tasks such as thermal management,
                where the system monitors CPU temperature and adjusts
                performance or power levels to prevent overheating, as well as
                power management routines that enable efficient energy usage
                by adjusting power states based on system activity
                \cite{offsec_bios_smm}. One of the critical security features of
                SMM is its role in managing firmware updates and handling
                system-level security events. Because SMM operates in a
                privileged mode that is isolated from the OS, it can
                apply firmware updates and could respond to security threats
                without being affected by potentially compromised system
                software \cite{domas2015}. However, the high privilege level and
                isolation of SMM also present significant security challenges.
                If an attacker can compromise SMM, they gain full control over
                the system, bypassing all security measures implemented by the
                OS \cite{cyber_smm_hack}. Also, with a proprietary firmware,
                it means that this code with a very high priviledge level
                cannot be audited at all, nor even replaced. \\

                The ASUS KGPE-D16 mainboard needs SMM to perform critical
                management tasks that need to be done in parallel from the
                operating system. For example, SMM is used to monitor and manage
                system health by responding to thermal events and adjusting
                power levels to maintain system stability. SMM operates
                independently of the main operating system, allowing it to
                perform sensitive tasks securely. \textit{coreboot}
                supports SMM, but its implementation is typically
                minimal compared to traditional proprietary firmware. In
                \textit{coreboot}, SMM initialization involves setting
                up the System Management Interrupt (SMI) handler and configuring
                System Management RAM (SMRAM), the memory region where SMM code
                executes\cite{brown2003linuxbios}. The extent of SMM support in
                \textit{coreboot} can vary significantly depending on the
                hardware platform and the specific requirements of the system.
                \textit{coreboot}'s design philosophy emphasizes a lightweight
                and fast boot process, delegating more complex management tasks
                to payloads or the operating system itself
                \cite{reinauer2008coreboot}.

                One of the key challenges with implementing SMM in
                \textit{coreboot} is ensuring that SMI handlers are configured
                correctly to manage necessary system tasks without compromising
                security or performance. \textit{coreboot}'s approach to SMM is
                consistent with its overall goal of providing a streamlined and
                efficient firmware solution, leaving more intricate
                functionalities to be handled by subsequent software layers
                \cite{mohr2012comparative}.

        \subsection{Payload}

            The payload is the software that executes after coreboot has
            completed its initialization tasks. It resides in the CBFS and is
            predetermined at compile time, with no option to choose it at
            runtime. The primary role of the payload is to load and hand control
            over to the operating system. In some cases, the payload itself can
            be a component of the operating system \cite{coreboot_docs}.
            Examples of payloads are \textit{GNU GRUB}, \textit{SeaBIOS},
            \textit{memtest86+} or even sometimes the \textit{Linux kernel}
            itself. \\

            \textit{TianoCore}, a free implementation of the UEFI (Unified
            Extensible Firmware Interface) specification is often used as a
            payload \cite{tianocore_payload}.
            It provides a UEFI environment after \textit{coreboot} has completed
            its initial hardware initialization. This allows the system to
            benefit from the advanced features of UEFI, such as a more flexible
            boot manager, enhanced features, and support for modern
            hardware. Indeed, UEFI, and by extension \textit{TianoCore},
            includes a driver model that allows hardware manufacturers to
            provide UEFI-compatible drivers. These drivers can be loaded at
            boot time, allowing the firmware to support a wide range of modern
            devices that \textit{coreboot}, with its more minimalistic and
            custom-tailored approach, might not support out of the box.
            For example, GOP drivers are responsible for setting up the
            graphics hardware in UEFI environments. They replace the older VGA
            BIOS routines used in legacy BIOS systems. With GOP drivers,
            the system can initialize the GPU and display a graphical interface
            even before the operating system loads \cite{osdev_gop}.
            Hardware manufacturers can distribute proprietary UEFI drivers as
            part of firmware updates, making it straightforward for end-users
            to install and use them. This is especially useful for specialized
            hardware that requires specific drivers not included in the
            free software community. It also gives hardware vendors more control
            over how their devices are initialized and used, which can be
            an advantage for vendors but is a freedom and user control
            limitation. \\

            Payloads are then definitely important parts of the firmware.

    \section{AMD Platform Security Processor and Intel Management Engine}

        The AMD Platform Security Processor (PSP) and Intel Management Engine
        (ME) are embedded subsystems within AMD and Intel processors,
        respectively, that handle a range of security-related tasks independent
        of the main CPU. These subsystems are fundamental to the security
        architecture of modern computing platforms, providing functions such as
        secure boot, cryptographic key management, and remote system management
        \cite{amd_psp_overview}.

        The AMD PSP is based on an ARM Cortex-A5 processor and is responsible
        for several security functions, including the validation of firmware
        during boot (secure boot), management of Trusted Platform Module (TPM)
        functions, and handling cryptographic operations such as key generation
        and storage. The PSP operates independently of the main x86 cores,
        which allows it to execute security functions even when the main system
        is powered off or compromised by malware \cite{amd_psp_overview}.
        The PSP's isolated environment ensures that sensitive operations are
        protected from threats that could affect the main OS. \\

        Similarly, the Intel Management Engine (ME) is a dedicated
        processor embedded within Intel chipsets that operates
        independently of the main CPU. The ME is a comprehensive subsystem that
        provides a variety of functions, including out-of-band system
        management, security enforcement, and support for Digital Rights
        Management (DRM) \cite{intel_csme}. The ME's firmware runs on an
        isolated environment that allows it to perform these tasks securely,
        even when the system is powered off. This capability is crucial for
        enterprise environments where administrators need to perform remote
        diagnostics, updates, and security checks without relying on the main
        OS.
        Intel ME enforces Digital Rights Management (DRM)
        through a multifaceted approach leveraging its deeply embedded,
        hardware-based capabilities. At the core is the Protected
        Execution Environment (PEE), which operates independently from the main
        CPU and operating system. This isolation allows to privately
        manage cryptographic keys, certificates, and other sensitive data
        critical for DRM, which can be very problematic from a user freedom
        perspective \cite{fsf_intel_me}. By handling encryption and decryption
        processes within this protected environment, Intel ME ensures that
        DRM-protected content, such as video streams, remains secure and
        unreachable by the user, raising concerns about the control users have
        over their own devices \cite{eff_intel_me}.
        Intel ME also plays a significant role in maintaining platform
        integrity through the secure boot process. During secure boot, Intel ME
        ensures that only digitally signed and authorized operating systems and
        applications are loaded, which can prevent users from installing
        alternative or modified software on their own hardware, further
        restricting their freedom \cite{uefi_what_is_uefi}. This is further
        reinforced by Intel ME's remote attestation capabilities, where the
        system’s state is reported to a remote server. This process verifies
        that only systems meeting specific security standards—dictated by third
        parties—are allowed to access DRM-protected content, potentially
        limiting users' control over their own devices \cite{proprivacy_intel_me}.
        Moreover, Intel ME supports High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection
        (HDCP), a technology that restricts how digital content is transmitted
        over interfaces like HDMI or DisplayPort. By enforcing HDCP, Intel ME
        ensures that protected digital content, such as high-definition video,
        is only transmitted to and displayed on authorized devices, effectively
        preventing users from freely using the content they have legally
        acquired \cite{phoronix_hdcp_2_2_i915}\cite{kernel_mei_hdcp}.
        Together, these features enable Intel ME to provide a comprehensive and
        robust DRM enforcement mechanism. However, this also means that users
        have less control over their own hardware and digital content, raising
        serious concerns about privacy, user autonomy, and the broader
        implications for freedom in computing
        \cite{fsf_intel_me}\cite{netgarage_intel_me}. \\

        Added to that, Intel ME has been a source of controversy due to its deep
        integration into the hardware and its potential to be exploited if
        vulnerabilities are discovered. Researchers have demonstrated ways to
        hack into the ME, potentially gaining control over a system even when
        it is powered off \cite{blackhat_me_hack}. These concerns have led to
        calls for greater transparency and security measures around the ME and
        similar subsystems. When comparing Intel ME and AMD PSP, the primary
        difference lies in their scope and functionality. Intel ME offers more
        extensive remote management capabilities, making it a more comprehensive
        tool for enterprise environments, while AMD PSP focuses more narrowly on
        core security tasks. Nonetheless, both play critical roles in ensuring
        the security and integrity of modern computing systems. \\

        The ASUS KGPE-D16 mainboard does not include AMD PSP nor Intel ME.

\chapter{Memory initialization and training algorithms [WIP]}

    \section{Importance of memory initialization}
        \begin{itemize}
            \item Steps involved in initializing the memory controller
            \item Critical role in system stability and performance
            \item \textbf{ASUS KGPE-D16 Example}: Memory initialization process on the KGPE-D16 mainboard
        \end{itemize}

        Memory training involves several steps:
        
        1. **Detection and Initialization**: The BIOS detects the installed memory        
        modules, determining their size, speed, and type.
        
        2. **Configuration and Timing Setup**: The BIOS configures the memory
        controller settings, including timings for memory access such as CAS
        latency, RAS to CAS delay, and other parameters\cite{intel_uefi}.
        
        3. **Training and Calibration**: The BIOS performs tests and adjustments to
        calibrate the memory system, ensuring stable operation at optimal speeds by
        adjusting signal voltages and testing data integrity\cite{wolf2006}.

        These steps are crucial for modern systems, where improper memory
        configuration can lead to instability, data corruption, or suboptimal
        performance.

        Memory timings, such as CAS latency, RAS to CAS delay, and others, must be
        finely tuned to ensure optimal performance. The BIOS uses a combination of
        predefined profiles and dynamic adjustments to achieve the best balance
        between speed and stability. Advanced timing optimization involves setting
        these parameters to ensure that memory operations are performed with
        minimal latency and maximum throughput\cite{russinovich2012}.

            \begin{listing}[H]
                \begin{adjustwidth}{0.5cm}{0.5cm}
                    \inputminted{c}{listings/test.c}
                \end{adjustwidth}
                \caption{\textit{Example C code}}
                \label{lst:c_code}
            \end{listing}

            We saw that in (lst. \ref{lst:c_code}).

    \section{Memory training algorithms}
        \begin{itemize}
            \item Techniques used for training memory
            \item Optimization of timings and voltage settings
            \item Challenges in multi-core CPU environments
            \item \textbf{ASUS KGPE-D16 Example}: Specific algorithms used for memory training in the mainboard and their performance outcomes
        \end{itemize}

        To optimize memory performance, the BIOS employs various training
        algorithms and calibration techniques. These methods test the memory under
        different conditions and make necessary adjustments to improve stability
        and efficiency. Key techniques include voltage adjustments, data integrity
        testing, and signal timing calibration\cite{shin2011}.

        Voltage adjustments involve tweaking the power supplied to the memory
        modules to ensure reliable operation. Data integrity testing checks that
        data can be accurately read and written, while signal timing calibration
        fine-tunes the delays between different memory operations to minimize
        latency.

    \section{Practical examples}
        \begin{itemize}
            \item Real-world scenarios where firmware played a crucial role in system performance
            \item Analysis of firmware updates and their impact on the KGPE-D16 mainboard
            \item User experiences and testimonials highlighting the importance of firmware
            \item \textbf{ASUS KGPE-D16 Example}: Specific case studies and firmware updates for the mainboard
        \end{itemize}

        \subsection{RAM Initialization Preparation}

            Memory initialization is one of the most critical tasks performed by \texttt{coreboot}. Without proper memory initialization, the system memory cannot function correctly, preventing the operating system from booting.

            The process begins by setting a default voltage for the memory modules. This is a preliminary step, as the initialization process will subsequently involve searching for an optimal voltage. The function \texttt{set\_peripheral\_control\_lines} is then called to enable various peripherals, such as IEEE1394-compatible devices (e.g., integrated FireWire on the motherboard).

            Next, the system waits for all cores, except the Bootstrap Processor (BSP), to halt using \texttt{wait\_all\_other\_cores\_stopped}. If everything is in order, the system sends code \texttt{0x38}.

        \subsection{RAM Initialization}

            The process starts by calling the \texttt{fill\_mem\_ctrl} function from \texttt{src/northbridge/amd/amdfam10/raminit\_sysinfo\_in\_ram.c}. This function iterates over all memory controllers (one per node) and initializes their corresponding structures with the system information needed for the RAM to function. This includes the addresses of PCI nodes (important for DMA operations) and SPD addresses, which are internal ROMs in each memory slot containing crucial information for detecting and initializing memory modules.

            If successful, the system posts codes \texttt{0x3D} and then \texttt{0x40}. The \texttt{raminit\_amdmct} function from \texttt{src/northbridge/amd/amdfam10/raminit\_amdmct.c} is then called. This function, in turn, calls \texttt{mctAutoInitMCT\_D} from \texttt{src/northbridge/amd/amdmct/mct\_ddr3/mct\_d.c}, which is responsible for the initial memory initialization, predominantly written by Raptor Engineering.

            \subsubsection{Memory Controller Initialization}

                At this stage, it is assumed that memory has been pre-mapped contiguously from address 0 to 4GB and that the previous code has correctly mapped non-cacheable I/O areas below 4GB for the PCI bus and Local APIC access for processor cores.

                The following prerequisites must be in place from the previous steps:

                \begin{itemize}
                    \item The HyperTransport bus is configured, and its speed is correctly set.
                    \item The SMBus controller is configured.
                    \item The BSP is in unreal mode.
                    \item A stack is set up for all cores.
                    \item All cores are initialized at a frequency of 2GHz.
                    \item The NVRAM has been verified with checksums.
                \end{itemize}

                The memory controller for the BSP is queried to check if it can manage ECC memory, which is a type of memory that includes error-correcting code to detect and correct common types of data corruption.

                For each node available in the system, the memory controllers are identified and initialized using a \texttt{DCTStatStruc} structure defined in \texttt{src/northbridge/amd/amdmct/mct\_ddr3/mct\_d.h}. This structure contains all necessary fields for managing a memory module. The process includes:

                \begin{itemize}
                    \item Retrieving the corresponding field in the sysinfo structure for the node.
                    \item Clearing fields with \texttt{zero}.
                    \item Initializing basic fields.
                    \item Initializing the controller linked to the current node.
                    \item Verifying the presence of the node (checking if the processor associated with this controller is present). If yes, the SMBus is informed.
                    \item Pre-initializing the memory module controller for this node using \texttt{mct\_preInitDCT}.
                \end{itemize}

            \subsubsection{Memory Module Training}

                Memory modules are designed to store data. The only valid operations on memory devices are reading data stored in the device, writing (or storing) data to the device, and refreshing the data. Memory modules consist of large rectangular arrays of memory cells, including circuits used to read and write data into the arrays and refresh circuits to maintain data integrity. The memory arrays are organized into rows and columns of memory cells, known as word lines and bit lines, respectively. Each memory cell has a unique location or address defined by the intersection of a row and a column.

                A DDR3 DIMM module contains 240 contacts. The DDR3 memory interface, used by the Asus KGPE-D16, is source-synchronous. Each memory module generates a Data Strobe (DQS) pulse simultaneously with the data (DQ) it sends during a read operation. Similarly, a DQS is generated with DQ information during a write operation. The DQS differs between write and read operations. For writes, the DQS is centered in the data bit period, whereas for reads, the DQS provided by the memory is aligned with the data period's edge.

                To improve timing margins or reduce simultaneous switching noise, the DDR3 memory interface allows for adjusting various timing parameters. For systems using dual-inline memory modules (DIMMs), as in this case, the interface provides write leveling: a timing adjustment that compensates for variations in signal travel time.

                To ensure proper timing margins, the write triggering of the interface must correspond to the command signal's arrival time, which can be resolved by adjusting the DQ and DQS launch times for each device. Each module uses the DQS to sample the clock, asynchronously returning the sampled clock signal to the controller on one or more data lines. To calibrate the write leveling adjustments, the memory controller sweeps the DQS for each data group across its delay range.

                The \texttt{coreboot} code compensates for the delay between DQS and DQ signals, as well as between CMD and DQ. This is handled in the \texttt{DQSTiming\_D} function.

                Finally, if the RAM is of the ECC type, error-correcting codes are enabled, and the function ends by activating power-saving features if requested by the user.

\chapter{Virtualization of the operating system through firmware abstraction}

    In contemporary computing systems, the operating system (OS) no longer
    interacts directly with hardware in the same way it did in earlier computing
    architectures. Instead, the OS operates within a highly abstracted
    environment, where critical functions are managed by various firmware
    components such as ACPI, SMM, UEFI, Intel Management Engine (ME), and AMD
    Platform Security Processor (PSP). This layered abstraction has led to the
    argument that the OS is effectively running in a virtualized environment,
    akin to a virtual machine (VM).

    \section{ACPI and abstraction of hardware control}

        The Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) provides a
        standardized method for the OS to manage hardware configuration and
        power states, effectively abstracting the underlying hardware
        complexities. ACPI abstracts hardware details, allowing the OS to
        interact with hardware components without needing direct control over
        them. This abstraction is similar to how a hypervisor abstracts physical
        hardware for VMs, enabling a consistent interface regardless of the
        underlying hardware specifics. \\

        According to \textcite{bellosa2010}, the abstraction provided by ACPI
        not only simplifies the OS's interaction with hardware but also limits
        the OS's ability to fully control the hardware, which is instead managed
        by ACPI-compliant firmware. This layer of abstraction contributes to the
        virtualization-like environment in which the OS operates. \\

    \section{SMM as a hidden execution layer}

        System Management Mode (SMM) is a special-purpose operating mode
        provided by x86 processors, designed to handle system-wide functions
        such as power management, thermal monitoring, and hardware control,
        independent of the OS. SMM operates transparently to the OS, executing
        code that the OS cannot detect or control, similar to how a hypervisor
        controls the execution environment of VMs. \\

        Research by \textcite{huang2009invisible} argues that SMM introduces a
        hidden layer of execution that diminishes the OS's control over the
        hardware, creating a virtualized environment where the OS is unaware of
        and unable to influence certain system-level operations. This hidden
        execution layer reinforces the idea that the OS runs in an environment
        similar to a VM, with the firmware acting as a hypervisor. \\

    \section{UEFI and persistence}

        The Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) has largely replaced
        the traditional BIOS in modern systems, providing a sophisticated
        environment that includes a kernel-like structure capable of running
        drivers and applications independently of the OS. UEFI remains active
        even after the OS has booted, continuing to manage certain hardware
        functions, which abstracts these functions away from the OS. \\

        \textcite{mcclean2017uefi} discusses how UEFI creates a persistent
        execution environment that overlaps with the OS's operation, effectively
        placing the OS in a position where it runs on top of another controlling
        layer, much like a guest OS in a VM. This persistence and the ability of
        UEFI to manage hardware resources independently further blur the lines
        between traditional OS operation and virtualized environments. \\

    \section{Intel and AMD: control beyond the OS}

        Intel Management Engine (ME) and AMD Platform Security Processor (PSP)
        are embedded microcontrollers within Intel and AMD processors,
        respectively. These components run their own firmware and operate
        independently of the main CPU, handling tasks such as security
        enforcement, remote management, and digital rights management (DRM). \\

        \textcite{bulygin2013chipset} highlights how these microcontrollers have
        control over the system that supersedes the OS, managing hardware and
        security functions without the OS's knowledge or consent. This level of
        control is reminiscent of a hypervisor that manages the resources and
        security of VMs. The OS, in this context, operates similarly to a VM
        that does not have full control over the hardware it ostensibly manages. \\

    \section{The OS as a virtualized environment}

        The combined effect of these firmware components (ACPI, SMM, UEFI,
        Intel ME, and AMD PSP) creates an environment where the OS operates in
        a virtualized or highly abstracted layer. The OS does not directly
        manage the hardware; instead, it interfaces with these firmware
        components, which themselves control the hardware resources. This
        situation is analogous to a virtual machine, where the guest OS
        operates on virtualized hardware managed by a hypervisor. \\

        \textcite{smith2019firmware} argues that modern OS environments,
        influenced by these firmware components, should be considered
        virtualized environments. The firmware acts as an intermediary layer
        that abstracts and controls hardware resources, thereby limiting the
        OS's direct access and control. \\

        The presence and operation of modern firmware components such as ACPI,
        SMM, UEFI, Intel ME, and AMD PSP contribute to a significant abstraction
        of hardware from the OS. This abstraction creates an environment that
        parallels the operation of a virtual machine, where the OS functions
        within a controlled, virtualized layer managed by these firmware
        systems. The growing body of research supports this perspective,
        suggesting that the traditional notion of an OS directly managing
        hardware is increasingly outdated in the face of these complex,
        autonomous firmware components.

\chapter*{Conclusion [WIP]}
\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Conclusion}

  \section{Summary of key points}
    \begin{itemize}
        \item Recap of the evolution and current state of firmware
        \item Importance of understanding modern BIOS functionalities
        \item Summary of the ASUS KGPE-D16 mainboard's features and firmware contributions
    \end{itemize}

  \section{Call for action}
    \begin{itemize}
        \item Advocacy for free software-compatible hardware
        \item Encouraging research and development in libre firmware solutions
        \item A libre BIOS is very important\cite{coreboot_fsf}.
    \end{itemize}

\newpage

% Bibliography
\nocite{*}
\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Bibliography}
\printbibliography

\newpage

% List of figures
\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{List of Figures}
\listoffigures
\newpage

% List of figures
\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{List of Listings}
\listoflistings
\newpage

\chapter*{\center\rlap{GNU Free Documentation License}}
\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{GNU Free Documentation License}

       Version 1.3, 3 November 2008


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conditions whatsoever to those of this License.  You may not use
technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further
copying of the copies you make or distribute.  However, you may accept
compensation in exchange for copies.  If you distribute a large enough
number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section~3.

You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and
you may publicly display copies.



\bigskip\bigskip{\Large\bf 3. COPYING IN QUANTITY\par}\bigskip



If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have
printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the
Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the
copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover
Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on
the back cover.  Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify
you as the publisher of these copies.  The front cover must present
the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and
visible.  You may add other material on the covers in addition.
Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve
the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated
as verbatim copying in other respects.

If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit
legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit
reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent
pages.

If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering
more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent
copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy
a computer-network location from which the general network-using
public has access to download using public-standard network protocols
a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material.
If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps,
when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure
that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated
location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an
Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
edition to the public.

It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give
them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.



\bigskip\bigskip{\Large\bf 4. MODIFICATIONS\par}\bigskip


You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under
the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy
of it.  In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:

\begin{itemize}
\item[A.] 
   Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct
   from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions
   (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section
   of the Document).  You may use the same title as a previous version
   if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
   
\item[B.]
   List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities
   responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified
   Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the
   Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five),
   unless they release you from this requirement.
   
\item[C.]
   State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
   Modified Version, as the publisher.
   
\item[D.]
   Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
   
\item[E.]
   Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications
   adjacent to the other copyright notices.
   
\item[F.]
   Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice
   giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the
   terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.
   
\item[G.]
   Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections
   and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice.
   
\item[H.]
   Include an unaltered copy of this License.
   
\item[I.]
   Preserve the section Entitled ``History'', Preserve its Title, and add
   to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
   publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page.  If
   there is no section Entitled ``History'' in the Document, create one
   stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
   given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified
   Version as stated in the previous sentence.
   
\item[J.]
   Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for
   public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise
   the network locations given in the Document for previous versions
   it was based on.  These may be placed in the ``History'' section.
   You may omit a network location for a work that was published at
   least four years before the Document itself, or if the original
   publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.
   
\item[K.]
   For any section Entitled ``Acknowledgements'' or ``Dedications'',
   Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all
   the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements
   and/or dedications given therein.
   
\item[L.]
   Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document,
   unaltered in their text and in their titles.  Section numbers
   or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.
   
\item[M.]
   Delete any section Entitled ``Endorsements''.  Such a section
   may not be included in the Modified Version.
   
\item[N.]
   Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled ``Endorsements''
   or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.
   
\item[O.]
   Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.
\end{itemize}

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material
copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all
of these sections as invariant.  To do this, add their titles to the
list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice.
These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.

You may add a section Entitled ``Endorsements'', provided it contains
nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
parties---for example, statements of peer review or that the text has
been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a
standard.

You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a
passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list
of Cover Texts in the Modified Version.  Only one passage of
Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or
through arrangements made by) any one entity.  If the Document already
includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or
by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of,
you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.

The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License
give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or
imply endorsement of any Modified Version.



\bigskip\bigskip{\Large\bf 5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS\par}\bigskip



You may combine the Document with other documents released under this
License, under the terms defined in section~4 above for modified
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the
Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its
license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.

The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
copy.  If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but
different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original
author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number.
Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.

In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled ``History''
in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled
``History''; likewise combine any sections Entitled ``Acknowledgements'',
and any sections Entitled ``Dedications''.  You must delete all sections
Entitled ``Endorsements''.


\bigskip\bigskip{\Large\bf 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS\par}\bigskip


You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents
released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this
License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in
the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for
verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.

You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute
it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this
License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all
other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.



\bigskip\bigskip{\Large\bf 7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS\par}\bigskip



A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
distribution medium, is called an ``aggregate'' if the copyright
resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights
of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit.
When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not
apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves
derivative works of the Document.

If the Cover Text requirement of section~3 is applicable to these
copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of
the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on
covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form.
Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole
aggregate.



\bigskip\bigskip{\Large\bf 8. TRANSLATION\par}\bigskip



Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section~4.
Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
original versions of these Invariant Sections.  You may include a
translation of this License, and all the license notices in the
Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include
the original English version of this License and the original versions
of those notices and disclaimers.  In case of a disagreement between
the translation and the original version of this License or a notice
or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.

If a section in the Document is Entitled ``Acknowledgements'',
``Dedications'', or ``History'', the requirement (section~4) to Preserve
its Title (section~1) will typically require changing the actual
title.



\bigskip\bigskip{\Large\bf 9. TERMINATION\par}\bigskip



You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document
except as expressly provided under this License.  Any attempt
otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and
will automatically terminate your rights under this License.

However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license
from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally,
unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally
terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder
fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to
60 days after the cessation.

Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is
reinstated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the
violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have
received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that
copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after
your receipt of the notice.

Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the
licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under
this License.  If your rights have been terminated and not permanently
reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the same material does
not give you any rights to use it.



\bigskip\bigskip{\Large\bf 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE\par}\bigskip



The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions
of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time.  Such new
versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may
differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.  See
\texttt{https://www.gnu.org/licenses/}.

Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
License ``or any later version'' applies to it, you have the option of
following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
Free Software Foundation.  If the Document does not specify a version
number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not
as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.  If the Document
specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of this
License can be used, that proxy's public statement of acceptance of a
version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the
Document.



\bigskip\bigskip{\Large\bf 11. RELICENSING\par}\bigskip



``Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site'' (or ``MMC Site'') means any
World Wide Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also
provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those works.  A
public wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a server.  A
``Massive Multiauthor Collaboration'' (or ``MMC'') contained in the
site means any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC
site.

``CC-BY-SA'' means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
license published by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit
corporation with a principal place of business in San Francisco,
California, as well as future copyleft versions of that license
published by that same organization.

``Incorporate'' means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or
in part, as part of another Document.

An MMC is ``eligible for relicensing'' if it is licensed under this
License, and if all works that were first published under this License
somewhere other than this MMC, and subsequently incorporated in whole
or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or invariant sections,
and (2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008.

The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the site
under CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August 1, 2009,
provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing.



\bigskip\bigskip{\Large\bf ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents\par}\bigskip


To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
the License in the document and put the following copyright and
license notices just after the title page:

\bigskip
\begin{quote}
    Copyright \copyright{}  YEAR  YOUR NAME.
    Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
    under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3
    or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
    with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
    A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU
    Free Documentation License''.
\end{quote}
\bigskip
    
If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts,
replace the ``with \dots\ Texts.''\ line with this:

\bigskip
\begin{quote}
    with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the
    Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST.
\end{quote}
\bigskip
    
If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the
situation.

If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of
free software license, such as the GNU General Public License,
to permit their use in free software.

\end{document}